A Dozen recent peer-reviewed studies
1. “Meta-analysis of biosolid effects on persistence of triclosan and
triclocarban in soil” 2015
Qiuguo Fu, Edmond Sanganyado , Qingfu Ye, Jay Gan
triclocarban in soil” 2015
Qiuguo Fu, Edmond Sanganyado , Qingfu Ye, Jay Gan
Highlights:
"Biosolid amendment greatly enhances persistence of triclosan and triclocarban, likely due to enhanced sorption or decreased chemical bioavailability. This finding highlights the importance to consider the effect of biosolids when evaluating the environmental risks of these and other biosolid-borne PPCPs."
"Biosolid amendment greatly enhances persistence of triclosan and triclocarban, likely due to enhanced sorption or decreased chemical bioavailability. This finding highlights the importance to consider the effect of biosolids when evaluating the environmental risks of these and other biosolid-borne PPCPs."
2. “Metal stress and decreased tree growth in response to biosolids application
in greenhouse seedlings and in situ Douglas-fir stands” 2011
Erica T. Cline, Quyen T.N. Nguyen, Lucy Rollins, James E. Gawel
in greenhouse seedlings and in situ Douglas-fir stands” 2011
Erica T. Cline, Quyen T.N. Nguyen, Lucy Rollins, James E. Gawel
Highlights:
"Phytochelatins e bioindicators of intracellular metal stress e were elevated in foliage of biosolids-amended stands, and significantly higher in roots of seedlings grown with fresh biosolids. These results demonstrate that biosolids amendments have short- and long-term negative effects that may counteract the expected tree growth benefits."
"Phytochelatins e bioindicators of intracellular metal stress e were elevated in foliage of biosolids-amended stands, and significantly higher in roots of seedlings grown with fresh biosolids. These results demonstrate that biosolids amendments have short- and long-term negative effects that may counteract the expected tree growth benefits."
3. “Occurrence, sources, and fate of pharmaceuticals in aquatic
environment and soil” 2013
W.C. Li
environment and soil” 2013
W.C. Li
Highlights:
"Those pharmaceuticals which cannot be degraded and attenuated by natural and
human process will accumulate in the environment and lead to potential effects on the organism or even human."
"Those pharmaceuticals which cannot be degraded and attenuated by natural and
human process will accumulate in the environment and lead to potential effects on the organism or even human."
4. “Influence of organic amendment on fate of acetaminophen
and sulfamethoxazole in soil” 2015
Juying Li , Qingfu Ye, Jay Gan
and sulfamethoxazole in soil” 2015
Juying Li , Qingfu Ye, Jay Gan
Highlights:
"Land application of biosolids or compost constitutes an important route of soil contamination by emerging contaminants such as acetaminophen and sulfamethoxazole. Addition of biosolids or compost appreciably accelerated the formation of bound residue, likely due to the fact that the organic material provided additional sites for binding interactions or introduced exogenous microorganisms facilitating chemical transformations. This effect of biosolids or compost should be considered in risk assessment of these and other emerging contaminants."
"Land application of biosolids or compost constitutes an important route of soil contamination by emerging contaminants such as acetaminophen and sulfamethoxazole. Addition of biosolids or compost appreciably accelerated the formation of bound residue, likely due to the fact that the organic material provided additional sites for binding interactions or introduced exogenous microorganisms facilitating chemical transformations. This effect of biosolids or compost should be considered in risk assessment of these and other emerging contaminants."
5. “Soil contamination by organic micropollutants”
2015, Vodyanitskii.
Highlights:
"The input of organic micro and nano-pollutants into the environment has increased in recent years. Emerging pollutants are defined as new chemicals without regulatory status and which impact on environment and human health are poorly understood. The list of emerging compound classes consists of pharmaceuticals, steroid and hormones, surfactants, flame retardants, industrial additives and agents, gasoline additives. There are two main potential routes of environmental exposure associated with these compounds: the land application of municipal biosolids (typically to agricultural fields) and wastewater use in irrigated agriculture. These pollutants contaminate groundwater, soil and are transferred to plants. Drugs have especially strong influence on soil biota (bacteria, earthworms and others). In contaminated soil microorganism reaction to these compounds is determined not only by the composition and amount of emerging pollutants but geochemical and environmental factors."
"The input of organic micro and nano-pollutants into the environment has increased in recent years. Emerging pollutants are defined as new chemicals without regulatory status and which impact on environment and human health are poorly understood. The list of emerging compound classes consists of pharmaceuticals, steroid and hormones, surfactants, flame retardants, industrial additives and agents, gasoline additives. There are two main potential routes of environmental exposure associated with these compounds: the land application of municipal biosolids (typically to agricultural fields) and wastewater use in irrigated agriculture. These pollutants contaminate groundwater, soil and are transferred to plants. Drugs have especially strong influence on soil biota (bacteria, earthworms and others). In contaminated soil microorganism reaction to these compounds is determined not only by the composition and amount of emerging pollutants but geochemical and environmental factors."
6. “Nanomaterials in Biosolids Inhibit Nodulation, Shift Microbial Community Composition, and Result in Increased Metal Uptake Relative to Bulk/Dissolved Metals” 2015
Paul M. Bertsch, William Rao, John Stegemeier, Gregory V. Lowry, Steve P. McGrath,
Mark Durenkamp, and Jason M. Unrine
Highlights:
"Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are entering waste streams in increasing quantities as a result of their use in an increasing variety of consumer products employing nanotechnology.1 The majority of these ENMs have been shown to partition to the sludge within wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), and there is a risk of environmental harm in agroecosystems where biosolids are land-applied as fertilizer, which has yet to be fully evaluated. While regulations exist that limit the land application of biosolids that contain elevated concentrations of certain metals, these regulations do not specifically consider the incorporation of metal-containing nanomaterials."
"Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are entering waste streams in increasing quantities as a result of their use in an increasing variety of consumer products employing nanotechnology.1 The majority of these ENMs have been shown to partition to the sludge within wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), and there is a risk of environmental harm in agroecosystems where biosolids are land-applied as fertilizer, which has yet to be fully evaluated. While regulations exist that limit the land application of biosolids that contain elevated concentrations of certain metals, these regulations do not specifically consider the incorporation of metal-containing nanomaterials."
"While the metal concentrations used in this study are high relative to near-term predicted soil ENM concentrations, we have clearly demonstrated that there is a distinct plant and microorganism response as a result of exposure to biosolids containing ENMs compared to biosolids containing bulk/dissolved metal of the same composition. This result suggests that soil accumulation of ENMs could potentially affect critical ecosystem services, agricultural productivity, and ultimately human well-being."
7.“Toxicogenomic Responses of the Model Legume Medicago truncatula to Aged Biosolids Containing a Mixture of Nanomaterials (TiO2, Ag, and ZnO) from a Pilot Wastewater Treatment Plant” 2015
Highlights:
"The field of nanotechnology is developing rapidly, and engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are being incorporated into an increasing number of industrial and consumer products. The ENMs within these products are being released into the environment, which raises concerns about their possible impacts on human and ecosystem health."
"The field of nanotechnology is developing rapidly, and engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are being incorporated into an increasing number of industrial and consumer products. The ENMs within these products are being released into the environment, which raises concerns about their possible impacts on human and ecosystem health."
"In summary, this study provides the first comprehensive insight into the toxicogenomic responses of M. truncatula grown in soils amended with aged biosolids containing a mixture of ENMs (Ag, TiO2, and ZnO). Considering the results from the companion study,18 the gene expression patterns are consistent with the hypothesis that inhibition of nodulation by ENM exposure was a result of plant toxicity rather than microbial toxicity, particularly because population densities of S. meliloti were similar in the bulk/dissolved and ENM treatments. We identified multiple genes involved in nodulation and inorganic nitrogen metabolism that were down regulated. In addition, genes involved in oxidative stress response were up-regulated. The companion study showed that Zn concentrations and uptake were higher in shoots from the ENM treatment than in the bulk/dissolved treatment while Ti and Ag concentrations were not significantly different.18 The present study showed that several genes involved in metal binding and Zn homeostasis were up-regulated. Taken together, these findings suggest that inhibition of growth and nodulation in M. truncatula exposed to ENM treatment is likely the result of enhanced bioavailability of Zn ions in the biosolids-amended soil containing aged ENMs resulting in phytotoxicity."
8. “Dissipation of contaminants of emerging concern in biosolids applied to nonirrigated farmland in eastern Colorado.” 2014
Highlights:
"This study indicates that some CECs are sufficiently persistent and mobile to be vertically transported into the soil column following biosolids applications to the land surface, even in semiarid regions"
"This study indicates that some CECs are sufficiently persistent and mobile to be vertically transported into the soil column following biosolids applications to the land surface, even in semiarid regions"
"Eggen et al. (2011) reported uptake of pharmaceuticals by plants (carrots, wheat and barley cereals, meadow fescue, turnip rape seed) and negative effects on growth and development of carrots; however, the wheat samples from the Colorado study were not analyzed for pharmaceutical CECs. Holling et al. (2012) reported pharmaceutical and triclosan uptake by cabbage roots and aerials."
"Triclosan, a synthetic antimicrobial compound, was persistent in biosolids through the 180 days of sampling (Figure 3). Large concentrations in the first (top) soil interval dissipated little over time."
"Concentrations of 4-nonylphenol (sum of all isomers), a detergent or metabolite, were substantial in the Colorado biosolids (approximately 200 ppm) and persisted through at least 180 days post-application"
"the persistence of this CEC in biosolids and soil indicates the potential for long-term environmental effects."
"A plasticizer and flame retardant, TBEP, was detected in biosolids at relatively small concentrations compared to other CECs but was consistently detected in biosolids through 180 days post-application"
"The results of this study indicate that CECs in biosolids persisted in a real field-application environment. Between 180 and 468 days post-application, select CECs migrated deeper into the soil profile or were taken up by plant roots."
"This study demonstrates that agronomic applications of biosolids result in detectable concentrations of CECs in soil, and that CECs can persist in surficial biosolids and in soil-biosolid mixtures at detectable concentrations on time scales exceeding one year, particularly under the semiarid conditions present at this study site."
9. “Bioavailability of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in biosolids-amended soils to earthworms (Eisenia fetida)” 2014
Highlights:
"Accumulation of organic contaminants implies a risk to not only earthworm populations but also many vertebrate species feeding on earthworms. So far information about the accumulation of PFASs by earthworms from soil is quite limited."
"Accumulation of organic contaminants implies a risk to not only earthworm populations but also many vertebrate species feeding on earthworms. So far information about the accumulation of PFASs by earthworms from soil is quite limited."
"land application of biosolids not only increases the OM contents, but also results in the accumulation of PFASs in soils."
"Earthworms may take up contaminants from soil and porewater, both through their skin (dermal) and by ingestion (oral). It is assumed that only contaminants that can be released from
soil/sediment are available to biological receptors.....The results verified that the soil PFOS and PFOA concentrations and soil OM content ([OM]) are two key factors controlling the bioavailability of PFOS and PFOA in soils."
soil/sediment are available to biological receptors.....The results verified that the soil PFOS and PFOA concentrations and soil OM content ([OM]) are two key factors controlling the bioavailability of PFOS and PFOA in soils."
"These suggested that soil concentration and OM content dominated the bioavailability of PFASs in soils. Soil pH and clay content appeared relatively unimportant for PFOS and PFOA bioavailability....The results of this study demonstrated that contamination of PFOS and PFOA in soils as a result of biosolids land application led to accumulation of PFOS and PFOA in earthworms with higher concentration of PFOS than that of PFOA."
“Identification of Viral Pathogen Diversity in Sewage Sludge by Metagenome Analysis” 2013 Kyle Bibby and Jordan Peccia
“Identification of Viral Pathogen Diversity in Sewage Sludge by Metagenome Analysis” 2013 Kyle Bibby and Jordan Peccia
Highlights:
"The large diversity of viruses that exist in human populations are potentially excreted into
sewage collection systems and concentrated in sewage sludge. "
"The large diversity of viruses that exist in human populations are potentially excreted into
sewage collection systems and concentrated in sewage sludge. "
"Two important, novel contributions can be drawn from this work’s results. The first is the broad diversity of human viruses revealed in the sludge samples. In every sample surveyed, the degree of viral pathogen diversity is greater than had been previously demonstrated in any environmental or wastewater sample. The realistic implications of this diversity include the need to consider a broader selection of viruses in environmental fate and transport studies, and importance of considering multiple human exposure routes to sewage sludge and wastewater. For the second major contribution, this work demonstrates the utility of metagenomic approaches for viral pathogen identification."
"The results of this study serve to expand our view on the type, occurrence and abundance of viral pathogens in raw sewage sludge and class B biosolids. These results strongly suggest that current regulations for pathogens in sewage sludge that focus on fecal coliform indicators or the presence of Enterovirus, do not capture the full degree of pathogen diversity to which the public may be exposed during biosolids land application. Emerging viruses including Parechovirus, Klassevirus, Bocavirus, and Coronavirus HKU1, were abundantly identified, highlighting previously undemonstrated pathogen diversity in sewage sludge."
10. "We Should Expect More out of Our Sewage Sludge" 2015
Jordan Peccia and Paul Westerhoff
Jordan Peccia and Paul Westerhoff
Highlights:
" Sludge management practice must shift from treatment of a liability toward recovery of the embedded energy and chemical assets, while continuing to protect the environment and human health. This shift will require new research, treatment technologies and infrastructure and must be guided by the application of green engineering principles to ensure economic, social, and environmental sustainability. "
" Sludge management practice must shift from treatment of a liability toward recovery of the embedded energy and chemical assets, while continuing to protect the environment and human health. This shift will require new research, treatment technologies and infrastructure and must be guided by the application of green engineering principles to ensure economic, social, and environmental sustainability. "
11. "Heavy Metal Accumulation in Small Mammals following Sewage Sludge Application to Forests" 1989
Highlights:
“Small mammals have been shown to accumulate heavy metals after sewage sludge was applied to forest lands. Shrews, shrew-moles, and deer mice absorbed metals from sludge”
12. "Uptake of Polychlorobiphenyls Present in Trace Amounts from Dried Municipal Sewage Sludge Through an Old Field Ecosystem" 1981
Highlights:
“Insects in the soil absorb toxins, which then accumulate in birds.”
Other Government Reviews not examined by the so-called Literature Review
“Sewage Sludge Management in Germany” – in-depth German government study 104 pages. https://www.umweltbundesamt.
Highlights:
"More than 30,000 tons of pharmaceutical drugs are used in Germany annually. After being used for therapeutic purposes or being disposed of improperly (in toilets), residues of these drugs end up in municipal sewage systems. Depending on the sewage treatment methods used, a greater or lesser portion of the pharmaceutical drug residues removed from sewage are deposited in sewage sludge. According to a German Advisory Council on the Environment (Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen, SRU) report on pharmaceutical drugs in the environment, although only a handful of pharmaceutical drugs accumulate in sewage sludge, it would be advisable to gradually phase out the use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer so as to avoid diffuse loads of potentially harmful substances in soil [SRU]."
"Expert reports issued by the German Advisory Council on the Environment (SRU) concerning pharmaceutical drugs in the environment indicate that the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment resulting from resistant bacteria inputs poses a greater public health hazard than antibiotic inputs per se [SRU].”
"Sewage sludge fertilizer is a pollution sink for harmful sewage components from households, businesses and diffuse sources, concerning whose environmental relevance too little is known. Notwithstanding tighter controls and stricter limit values for certain sewage sludge pollutants, uncontrolled pollutants such as hydrocarbons inevitably find their way into the soil. Incorporation of certain pollutants into the food chain cannot always be avoided, despite the fact that, for example, plants normally do not absorb organic pollutants. Nonetheless, new breakdown products of pharmaceutical drugs are discovered in sewage sludge all the time, and they are incorporated into sewage sludge via human excretion carried by the wastewater that is treated by sewage treatment plants."
"More than 30,000 tons of pharmaceutical drugs are used in Germany annually. After being used for therapeutic purposes or being disposed of improperly (in toilets), residues of these drugs end up in municipal sewage systems. Depending on the sewage treatment methods used, a greater or lesser portion of the pharmaceutical drug residues removed from sewage are deposited in sewage sludge. According to a German Advisory Council on the Environment (Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen, SRU) report on pharmaceutical drugs in the environment, although only a handful of pharmaceutical drugs accumulate in sewage sludge, it would be advisable to gradually phase out the use of sewage sludge as a fertilizer so as to avoid diffuse loads of potentially harmful substances in soil [SRU]."
"Expert reports issued by the German Advisory Council on the Environment (SRU) concerning pharmaceutical drugs in the environment indicate that the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment resulting from resistant bacteria inputs poses a greater public health hazard than antibiotic inputs per se [SRU].”
"Sewage sludge fertilizer is a pollution sink for harmful sewage components from households, businesses and diffuse sources, concerning whose environmental relevance too little is known. Notwithstanding tighter controls and stricter limit values for certain sewage sludge pollutants, uncontrolled pollutants such as hydrocarbons inevitably find their way into the soil. Incorporation of certain pollutants into the food chain cannot always be avoided, despite the fact that, for example, plants normally do not absorb organic pollutants. Nonetheless, new breakdown products of pharmaceutical drugs are discovered in sewage sludge all the time, and they are incorporated into sewage sludge via human excretion carried by the wastewater that is treated by sewage treatment plants."
The official notice from Switzerland stopping the use of Sewer Sludge on farmland - (note that they cite the Precautionary Principle)
"Although sludge contains plant nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen it also comprises a whole range of harmful substances and pathogenic organisms produced by industry and private households. For this reason, most farmers already avoid using sludge as a fertiliser since they are aware of the risk of irreversible damage to the soil, the danger to public health and possible negative effects on the quality of the food they produce. For this reason the Federal Council plans to ban the use of sludge as a fertiliser, although this will mean breaking a nutrient cycle which is in itself useful. Prevention – a key principle of the law on health and the environment – requires, however, that any consequences for the environment which could be damaging or negative must be limited as early as possible, even there is no conclusive scientific evidence for such damage being caused."
(from - http://www.bafu.admin.ch/
Other studies questioning the safety of “biosolids” released after the Literature Review
1. “Pathogenic Escherichia coli and enteric viruses in biosolids and related top soil improvers in Italy.” 2016
Highlights:
"Four samples were positive for the presence of nucleic acids from human norovirus, two of them being also positive for human adenovirus. Real Time PCR screening gave positive results for many of the virulence genes characteristic of diarrheagenic E. coli in 21 samples. These included the Verocytotoxin-coding genes, in some cases associated with intimin-coding gene, and markers of enteroaggregative, enterotoxigenic, and enteroinvasive E. coli. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that enteric viruses and pathogenic E. coli may be released into the environment through the use of sludges-derived TSI (what in Europe they call sewer sludge and manures - Top Soil Improvers )"Our results highlight that the TSI-related environmental risk for the food chain should be more deeply assessed."
"Four samples were positive for the presence of nucleic acids from human norovirus, two of them being also positive for human adenovirus. Real Time PCR screening gave positive results for many of the virulence genes characteristic of diarrheagenic E. coli in 21 samples. These included the Verocytotoxin-coding genes, in some cases associated with intimin-coding gene, and markers of enteroaggregative, enterotoxigenic, and enteroinvasive E. coli. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that enteric viruses and pathogenic E. coli may be released into the environment through the use of sludges-derived TSI (what in Europe they call sewer sludge and manures - Top Soil Improvers )"Our results highlight that the TSI-related environmental risk for the food chain should be more deeply assessed."
2. “Long-term field application of sewage sludge increases the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in soil.” 2016
Highlights:
“Compared to the control soil (which contained around 40 antibiotic resistance genes), and to the soil fertilised only with chemical fertiliser (which contained a similar number), treatment with chicken manure (10 tonnes per hectare — t/ha) and sewage sludge (36 t/ha) more than doubled the number of antibiotic resistance genes (to around 100)…They also found that the effects increased with the amount of treatment that was applied… The highest number of antibiotic resistance genes were detected following sewage sludge treatment (36 t/ha).”
“Compared to the control soil (which contained around 40 antibiotic resistance genes), and to the soil fertilised only with chemical fertiliser (which contained a similar number), treatment with chicken manure (10 tonnes per hectare — t/ha) and sewage sludge (36 t/ha) more than doubled the number of antibiotic resistance genes (to around 100)…They also found that the effects increased with the amount of treatment that was applied… The highest number of antibiotic resistance genes were detected following sewage sludge treatment (36 t/ha).”
3. “Are agricultural soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin?” 2016
Highlights:
"Based on new microplastics emission estimates in industrialized countries, we suggest that widespread application of sewage sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to farmlands is likely to represent a major input of microplastics to agricultural soils, with unknown consequences for sustainability and food security."
"Based on new microplastics emission estimates in industrialized countries, we suggest that widespread application of sewage sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to farmlands is likely to represent a major input of microplastics to agricultural soils, with unknown consequences for sustainability and food security."
4. “Microplastics – Also in Our Food?” 2015
Highlights:
"microplastics has gained attention as an environmental problem. Microplastics has been detected in the ocean, in rivers, in effluents from sewage treatment plants and sewage sludge. It is spread as fine dust in the air, such as tire wear, as sewage sludge fertilizer and landfill leachate on the ground, and also with rainwater."
"microplastics has gained attention as an environmental problem. Microplastics has been detected in the ocean, in rivers, in effluents from sewage treatment plants and sewage sludge. It is spread as fine dust in the air, such as tire wear, as sewage sludge fertilizer and landfill leachate on the ground, and also with rainwater."
5. “The fetal ovary exhibits temporal sensitivity to a ‘real-life’ mixture of environmental chemicals” 2016
Highlights:
"The study highlights potential risks associated with the common practice of grazing livestock on pastures on which human sewage sludge-derived fertilizer has been used.”
"The study highlights potential risks associated with the common practice of grazing livestock on pastures on which human sewage sludge-derived fertilizer has been used.”
"More worryingly, since low-level chemical exposure poses a threat to human reproductive development, the consumption of products from animals grazing such pastures may be of considerable environmental concern."
